Cell Phones Effect on Society

RBMOnline – Vol 18. No 1. 2009 148-157 Reproductive BioMedicine Online; www. rbmonline. com/Article/3628 on web 3 November 2008 Review Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? Ashok Agarwal is a Professor in the Lerner College of Medicine at Case Western Reserve University and the Director of Center for Reproductive Medicine, and the Clinical Andrology Laboratory at The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.He has published over 400 scientific articles, reviews and book chapters in different areas of andrology, male/ female infertility and fertility preservation. His research program is known internationally for its focus on disease-oriented cutting edge research in the field of human reproduction. His team has presented over 700 papers at national and international meetings and more than 150 scientists, clinicians and biologists have received their training in his laboratory.Dr Ashok Agarwal Kartikeya Makker1, Alex Varghese1, Nisarg R Desai1, Rand Mouradi2, Ashok Agarwal1,3 1 Center for Reproductive Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; 2Department of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 3 Correspondence: Tel: +1 216 444 9485; Fax: +1 216 445 6049; e-mail: [email  protected] org Abstract Over the past decade, the use of mobile phones has increased significantly.However, with every technological development comes some element of health concern, and cell phones are no exception. Recently, various studies have highlighted the negative effects of cell phone exposure on human health, and concerns about possible hazards related to cell phone exposure have been growing. This is a comprehensive, up-to-the-minute overview of the effects of cell phone exposure on human health.The types of cell phones and cell phone technologies currently used in the world are discussed in an attempt to improve the understanding of the technical aspects, including the effect of cell phone exposure on the cardiovascular system, sleep and cognitive function, as well as localized and general adverse effects, genotoxicity potential, neurohormonal secretion and tumour induction. The proposed echanisms by which cell phones adversely affect various aspects of human health, and male fertility in particular, are explained, and the emerging molecular techniques and approaches for elucidating the effects of mobile phone radiation on cellular physiology using high-throughput screening techniques, such as metabolomics and microarrays, are discussed. A novel study is described, which is looking at changes in semen parameters, oxidative stress markers and sperm DNA damage in semen samples exposed in vitro to cell phone radiation.Keywords: biophysics, cell phone, general health, infertility, radiofrequency electromagnetic waves, RF-EMW Introduction Cell phone usage has increased by leaps and bounds in the past decade and a half. From being a luxury limited to the wealthy, cell phones have b ecome a commodity, virtually indispensable in daily lives. However, every technological advance and its overuse have a negative aspect. The increase in popularity of cell phones is accompanied by a growing concern regarding the harmful effects of cell phone radiation (radiofrequency electromagnetic waves; RF-EMW) exposure on human health.An earlier report of the Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones, established by the UK government, summarized the relevant studies on the biological effects of RF-EMW (Huber et al. , 2000). Since then, a flurry of scientific activities has attempted to define and quantify the adverse effects of RF-EMW. Despite the increasing number of reports concerning the effects of RF-EMW on various biological systems, no satisfactory mechanism has been proposed to explain the effects of this radiation (Feychting, 2005).Although cell phone companies constantly reassure their subscribers about the safety of their product, reports based on animal and human exper iments showing adverse effects of cell phones on biological systems have surfaced. According to various reports, excessive cell phone usage has led to fatigue, headache, decreased concentration and local irritation and burning (Sandstrom et al. , 2001). The possible role of cell phone exposure on tumour induction also has been proposed in an epidemiological study (Hardell et al. , 2006).Recent studies also have highlighted the role of cell phone exposure on sperm motility, morphology and viability, thus proposing a reduction in male fertilizing potential (Agarwal et al. , 2008). Other reports suggest that RF-EMW may lead to DNA damage and chromosomal instability (Diem et al. , 2005). Even though the current research may have been inconclusive, it still has been successful in providing preliminary data and identifying trends on both sides of the argument that cell phone exposure may lead to harmful effects on human health.These 148  © 2009 Published by Reproductive Healthcare Ltd, Duck End Farm, Dry Drayton, Cambridge CB23 8DB, UK Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. studies have been handicapped by many drawbacks in design and methodology. In particular, comparing animal models with humans (Cairnie and Harding, 1981) is impractical. Differences in geometry, size and physiological responses between man and experimental animals imply that the results in animal studies should be interpreted with caution.Experimental approaches involving animal studies and in-vitro studies, along with high-throughput screening techniques like transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, can augment the validity of epidemiological studies addressing the effect of RF-EMW on reproductive tissues, cells and functions. Recent studies using these approaches have yielded interesting clues on the effect of RF-EMW at the cellular and molecular levels. This article highlights the adverse affects of RF-EMW on human biological systems by review ing relevant studies and recent research to aid in deeper understanding of this important health issue.The novel study currently being carried out in the centre is briefly discussed. 1900 MHz), and they have the capacity to switch automatically among these four frequencies. Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the energy flow per unit of mass (watts/kg; W/kg). It is a measurement of the power or heat absorbed by the tissue either in a local area of a human tissue or averaged over the whole body. In the USA, the SAR of cell phones varies from 0. 12–1. 6 W/kg. Standards are designed to limit the SAR in the body to safety levels. The Federal Communications Commission has set a SAR safety limit of 1. W/kg, averaged over a volume of 1 g of tissue, for most parts of the body (see website). Exposure guidelines for RF protection had adopted the value of 4 W/kg averaged over the whole body (SARWB) ‘as the threshold for the induction of adverse thermal effects associated with an inc rease of the body core temperature of about 1 °C in animal experiments’ (Barnes and Greenebaum, 2007). Cell phone radiation output power is measured in units of watts or dBm (decibel referenced to 1 mW). Usually cell phones with higher frequency are assigned less output power. Cell phones commonly used these days operate at an output power of less than 1 W.Power density is a term for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field. It is defined as the power per unit area and is measured in units of mW/m2 or  µW/cm2 (Food and Drug Administration website). Maximum permissible exposures are based on SAR and power density measurements. The Federal Communications Commission has established safety standards on power density for cell phone base station antenna using 1900 MHz band for the general population an uncontrolled exposure of 1000  µW/cm2, and for the 850 MHz band the maximum exposure allowed is about 580  µW/cm2, as averaged over any 30-min period.Recent studies demonst rated that RF-EMW emitted from commercially available cell phones have no thermal effects (Straume et al. , 2005; Anderson and Rowley, 2007; Yan et al. , 2007). An overview of cell phone technology Telecommunications technology has advanced rapidly and explosively in recent years. The earliest, fully automatic cellular phone systems that were used were called Nordic mobile telephone, now classified as first-generation cellular phones. Introduced in the late 1970s and early 1980s, they were based on analogue technology.The second-generation cell phones that replaced the older analogue type are based on digital technology. These digital models have increased voice capacity, provided faster data transfer speeds, longer battery life, less power use and better signal quality than the firstgeneration cell phones. The cell phone technologies that are commonly used nowadays are the global system for mobile communication (GSM) and code division multiple access (CDMA). Both of these technolog ies are used by cell phone companies in the USA.The GSM technology uses narrow-band time division multiple access (TDMA), whereas CDMA incorporates the wider band that allows more users without interference and better security by providing every user with a unique code. The third-generation cell phones, which may be available for general use in the near future, consist of universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)/wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) and the high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) phones.The UMTS utilizes a GSM infrastructure with a W-CDMA air interface (the specification of the radio transmission between a mobile phone and the base station), which adds advantages to UMTS over GSM technology. The HSDPA is based on the W-CDMA technology with improved downlink speed that allows even higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Cell phones in the USA operate on the frequency bands of 850 MHz and 1900 MHz. In most other parts of the world, the frequency bands used are 900 MHz and 1800 MHz.The newer phones offer a quad-band feature, which means that they can operate on the four common frequencies (850/900/1800 and RBMOnline ® Effect of RF-EMW on general health This section provides a discussion of the various aspects of human health that have been proposed to be, or actually are, affected by cell phone radiation (RF-EMW) (Figure 1). Effect on cardiovascular system (CVS) Braune et al. (1998) exposed human volunteers to RF-EMW and reported an increase in blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic) on exposure to RF-EMW at 900 MHz for 35 min.Blood pressure increased by 5–10 mmHg, accompanied by a significant decrease in capillary perfusion due to vasoconstriction. They demonstrated, however, that autoregulatory blood pressure mechanisms were intact, as shown by a decrease in heart rate to nullify the increase in blood pressure. In a follow-up study done by the same group to corroborate their previous findings, a statisticall y significant increase in blood pressure was shown, but the analysis of variance showed that the changes were independent of EMW exposure (Braune et al. , 2002).Later, Tahvanainen et al. (2004) demonstrated cell phone exposure does not acutely change arterial blood pressure and heart rate. 149 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Figure 1. Effect of electromagnetic radiation from cell phone usage on various human systems. OS = oxidative stress. In an animal study, Ozguner et al. (2005) reported increase in oxidative stress in rat myocardium on exposure to 900 MHz RF-EMW (30 min/day, for 10 days). kit or using a landline phone to reduce cell phone exposure (Oftedal et al. , 2000).The generation of reactive oxygen species by RF-EMW exposure is still to be proven convincingly, although many groups have provided evidence in animal-based studies. An increase in kidney tissue malonaldehyde and urine N-acetyl-? d-glucosaminidase and decrease in renal superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were reported by Oktem et al. (2005). Similar results were shown by another investigator (Irmak et al. , 2002), who provided evidence in favour of EMW-induced oxidative stress. They showed an increase in superoxide dismutase activity and a decrease in nitric oxide concentrations in sera.Conversely, no change was seen in the concentration of intracellular oxidants [oxidized form of glutathione (GSSG) accumulation, oxidation of thiol] and antioxidants (CuZn-superoxide dismutase, catalase) in cells exposed to radiofrequency radiation (CDMA and GSM, 835– 847 MHz for 20–22 h) (Hook et al. , 2004). Effect on sleep Despite concerns that sleep patterns are disturbed due to excessive cell phone usage, Huber et al. (2000) did not report any significant change in sleep quality, sleep latency and rapid-eye-movement sleep latency in healthy young men exposed to 900 MHz for 30 min.The only effect reported was an increa se in electroencephalogram power density during the first 30 min of non-rapid-eye-movement sleep, especially ? waves and sleep spindles (the type of sleep waves seen with an electroencephalogram). They concluded that the effect of RF-EMW exposure was transitory, limited to the initial phase of sleep and outlasting the RF-EMW exposure. Recently, Perentos et al. (2007) found no significant change in resting electroencephalogram on human volunteers exposed to RF-EMW. Cell phones and neurohormonal secretionVarious epidemiological studies have highlighted effects of cell phone usage on neurohormonal secretion. Conflicting results have been reported by different groups regarding the effect of cell phones on melatonin secretion. De Seze et al. (1999) reported no change in maximum serum concentration (P = 0. 63), the time of peak concentration (P = 0. 49) and area under curve (P = 0. 56) of the hormonal profile. On the other hand, Burch et al. (2002) concluded that subjects with cell phone usage >25 min/day had lower creatinine-adjusted mean nocturnal concentrations of a melatonin metabolite, 6-hydroxymelatonin sulphate (6-OHMS), (P = 0. 5) and lower overnight 6-OHMS excretion (P = 0. 03). They concluded that prolonged usage of cell phones may lead to reduced melatonin production. Djeridane et al. (2008) demonstrated 900 MHz RFEMW would not significantly affect endocrine functions in men. RBMOnline ® Local and general adverse effects Sandstrom et al. (2001), in a questionnaire-based study involving some 17,000 respondents, showed that cell phone usage led to complaints such as warmth on and behind the ear (31%), fatigue (28%), headache (21. 4%), decreased concentration (15%), dizziness (10%), memory loss (9%), and tingling and numbness (6. 7%).They also concluded that a statistically significant positive trend was shown by warmth and neurasthenic symptoms (headache, fatigue) with calling time and number of calls per day. They proposed that these changes were due to either radiofrequency exposure or thermal effects of EMW. Of all the people who attributed these symptoms to cell phone usage, 45% of them took steps such as reducing calling time, changing cell phone model, using a hands-free 150 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Effects on cognitive function Preece et al. (1999) exposed human volunteers to RF-EMW and reported that the nly cognitive function test that altered post-RF-EMW exposure is choice reaction time, leading to an increase in responsiveness. They reported no change in word, number or picture recall or any change in spatial memory. They proposed that the increase in responsiveness was due to a mild local thermal effect of EMW on angular gyrus (the interface between visual and speech centres) or to mechanisms mediated by heat shock proteins. They also concluded that memory is not commonly affected by cell phone exposure as the memory area of the brain (hippocampus) is deep seated i n the medial temporal lobe of the brain.Later, Regel et al. (2007) demonstrated RFEMW exposure reduces reaction speed and increased accuracy in working-memory tasks. As discussed previously, recent studies reported that RF-EMW emitted from commercially available cell phones have no thermal effect (Straume et al. , 2005; Anderson and Rowley, 2007; Yan et al. , 2007). However, several views were proposed to elucidate the disruption of metabolic pathways by RF-EMW. Some of these views are based on experimental evidences and some on hypothetical models. Isocitrate dehydrogenase, an important enzyme in the citric acid cycle, is one of the targets of cell phone radiation.Alteration in the enzyme activity leads to decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in mammalian cells (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). Since sperm motility depends on the active generation of ATP, such a mechanism might cause the decline in sperm motility during RF exposure. Spermatozoa lose their cytoplasm po st-spermiation, leading to the loss of their antioxidant protective mechanism and rendering them inherently vulnerable to induction of DNA damage. They are differentiated to the point that they cannot undergo apoptosis in response to any form of severe genetic damage (Aitken, 1999).In addition, during the process of maturation, spermatozoa are separated from the Sertoli cells, their nursing cells. Several investigators have demonstrated an increase in DNA fragmentation in a variety of human and animal cells following cell phone exposure (Lai and Singh, 1996; Diem et al. , 2005; Panagopoulos et al. , 2007). Lai and Singh showed that exposing rats (n = 16) for 2 h to pulsed 2- µs pulse width, 500 pulses/s and continuous wave (2450 MHz) leads to an increase in breaks of single-stranded DNA (P < 0. 01) and double-stranded DNA (P < 0. 01) in rat brain cells.They proposed that this could be due to either direct EMWmediated effects or a defect in DNA repair mechanisms. In contrast, sever al studies found no effect of EMW on genotoxicity. Stronati et al. (2006) demonstrated no effects of RF exposure on DNA strand breakage (assessed by COMET assay), unstable chromosomal alterations (assessed by metaphase analysis) or alterations in the speed of in-vitro cell cycling (assessed by nuclear division index) in lymphocytes in their experiment involving exposure of human blood samples to RF (24 h, 935 MHz). A large-scale in-vitro study conducted by Sakuma et al. 2006) concluded that RF-EMW from mobile phone radio base stations do not act as a genotoxicant (at SAR up to 800 mW/kg). The induction of DNA damage in spermatozoa has been associated with male infertility, early pregnancy loss and morbidity in the offspring, including childhood cancer (Aitken, 1999). Aitken et al. (2005) demonstrated that exposure of mice to RF-EMW, 900 MHz, 12 h/day for 7 days led to damage to both the mitochondrial and nuclear genome of epididymal spermatozoa (P < 0. 01). However, currently no hum an studies are available demonstrating DNA damage in sperm cells by RF radiation exposure.Several animal studies have attempted to highlight histological changes in testicular tissue on exposure to RF-EMW. Dasdag et al. (1999) demonstrated a decrease in mean seminiferous tubule diameter in rats (n = 18) by exposing them to an 890–915 MHz cell phone, 2 h/day for 30 days (P < 0. 05). However, a similar study carried out later by the same group did not reveal any statistically significant result of cell phone exposure on seminiferous tubular diameter, lipid composition, malonaldehyde Tumorigenesis Carcinogenic potential of cell phone radiation is one of the most conflicting aspect in various studies conducted by several groups.Following public concern that cell phone exposure may lead to cancer, Hardell et al. (2006) conducted an epidemiological questionnaire-based study and concluded that astrocytoma (grade III–IV) and acoustic neuroma did show a positive correlation wit h cell phone usage, and the odds ratio increased with latency (10 years). However, no increased risk was shown with astrocytoma (grade I–II), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, salivary tumours or testicular tumours. With regard to testicular tumours, they concluded that the risk of seminoma and non-seminoma was not increased, a dose–response effect was not observed, and he location of the cell phone was not associated with testicular cancers (Hardell et al. , 2007). Other scientists have concluded that the current evidence for a causal association between cancer and EMW exposure is weak and unconvincing (Colonna, 2005). Cell phone and effects on male fertility Pathophysiology Despite reports from numerous groups suggesting a possible role of cell phone exposure in male infertility, the exact mechanism of the effects of EMW on male reproductive system is yet to be elucidated. Though various effects have been proposed, foolproof experimental evidences are lacking to substantiate it. Human testes need physiological temperatures 2 °C lower than body temperature for optimal spermatogenesis. Highintensity RF has heating properties that lead to thermal effects on the testes. An increase in testicular or body temperature on exposure to EMW may cause reversible disruption of spermatogenesis (Kandeel and Swerdloff, 1988; Jung and Schill, 2000). EMW can also affect reproductive function via an EMW-specific effect (a ‘microwave’ effect produced by an increase in tissue temperature less than its normal temperature fluctuation) or in combination with the thermal molecular effect (Blackwell, 1979). 51 RBMOnline ® Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. concentration, sperm count or sperm morphology (Dasdag et al. , 2003). Ribeiro et al. (2007) also did not find any significant adverse effect of cellular phone exposure (GSM 1835–1850 MHz exposure, 1 h/day for 11 weeks) on rat testicular histology and function . However results of in-vitro studies are conflicting. An in-vitro study divided neat semen samples from healthy volunteers (n = 27) into two parts and one part was exposed to 900 MHz EMW for 5 min.Compared with the unexposed sample, the exposed sample was found to have a significant decrease in rapid progressive motility (Grade A, P = 0. 0007), an increase in slow progressive motility (Grade B, P = 0. 0007) and an increase in the percentage of immotile spermatozoa (Grade D, P = 0. 0003) (Erogul et al. , 2006). Recently, Falzone et al. (2008) studied the effect of pulsed 900 MHz radiation on various kinetic parameters and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)of purified human spermatozoa (by percoll density gradient). They found significant decrease in straight-line velocity and beatcross frequency at an SAR of 5. W/kg. However, at an SAR of 2. 0 W/kg they found no significant change in any kinetic parameters, including MMP. Significant changes in sperm morphology were not reported in the animal studies carried out by Dasdag et al. (1999, 2003). Similarly no significant (P > 0. 05) alteration in morphology was reported by another group based on their animal experiment (Yan et al. , 2007). However, the same group reported that 80% of the slides in the exposed group showed large clumps of sperm cells that were able only to turn about in their position and were not able to break free.On the other hand, significant data were brought out in a study in which 15. 3% of men using cell phones sporadically for 1–2 years had only 10–19% normal spermatozoa, and 15. 3% had total azoospermia, whereas men frequently using cell phones for >2 years had only 8. 3% normal spermatozoa, and 22. 9% showed total azoospermia (Wdowiak et al. , 2007). EMW and semen parameters The effects of cell phone exposure on male fertility have been studied exhaustively in recent years (Deepinder et al. , 2007).The effects on sperm concentration, motility and morphology have been ev aluated in many animal and human studies, but results are inconclusive. Motility is the only parameter that the majority of studies have shown to be significantly affected. The need to further evaluate the effects of EMW on sperm morphology, viability and concentration still exists. Dasdag et al. (1999) reported a decrease in sperm count; however, the decline was not statistically significant (P > 0. 05), and they were not able to repeat the same results later in a similar study (Dasdag et al. 2003). Another group reported that exposure of rats (n = 16) to a 1. 9 Hz cell phone from a distance of 1 cm for 6 h/ day for 18 weeks did not lead to significant decline in sperm concentration. The exposure group had a mean sperm count of 7. 45 ? 107  ± 1. 03 ? 107 sperm cells/ml, and the non-exposed group had a mean sperm count of 7. 7 ? 107  ± 8. 11 ? 106 sperm cells/ml (P > 0. 05) (Yan et al. , 2007). In an epidemiological study, researchers concluded that no statistically significant (P > 0. 05, chi-squared test = 1. 8) difference in sperm count resulted from cell phone exposure (Wdowiak et al. , 2007). In a study carried out by this centre, a significant decline in sperm count was demonstrated in men who used cell phones for >4 h/ day (n = 114, count 50. 30  ± 41. 92 ? 106/ml) as compared with those who did not use cell phones at all (n = 40, count 85. 89  ± 35. 56 ? 106/ml) (P < 0. 0001) (Agarwal et al. , 2008). As mentioned earlier, motility is the only parameter that consistently has been shown to decline in studies carried out by various groups.In a study involving 371 men presenting for an infertility workup, duration of possession and daily transmission time of cell phones correlated negatively with the proportion of rapid progressive motile spermatozoa (r = –0. 12 and r = –0. 19, P < 0. 01) and positively with the proportion of slow progressive motile spermatozoa (r = 0. 12 and r = 0. 28, P < 0. 01) (Fejes et al. , 2005). The same group also concluded that low transmitter (60 min/ day) groups also differed in the proportion of rapid progressive motile spermatozoa (48. 7% versus 40. 6%, P < 0. 01).Wdowiak et al. (2007) reported that 65. 7% of men not using cell phones had >50% (WHO category A + B) sperm motility, whereas only 35. 4% of men who frequently used cell phones had >50% (A + B) sperm motility. Agarwal et al. (2008) had shown a significant reduction in motility of spermatozoa in men using cell phones >4 h/day versus men not using them at all (67. 80  ± 6. 16% versus 44. 81  ± 16. 30%, P < 0. 0001). In an animal-based study, a significant decrease in sperm motility on exposure to cell phone (n = 16, P < 0. 05) was reported (Yan et al. , 2007).The researchers also reported that the majority of sperm cells in the exposure group were dead (live cells 44. 88  ± 20. 66%); in the control group, the majority of sperm cells were alive with constant, active motility (live cells 70. 93  ± 12. 94%). Transcript omics and proteomics in elucidation of biological response of cell phone radiation Research over the last two decades on the effect of RFEMW has yielded controversial results. It is said that even an extensive epidemiological study might not be sufficient to elucidate the health effects of electromagnetic radiations because of the low sensitivity of this approach.Hence, to validate the results from epidemiological studies, further data from animal and in-vitro studies needs to be analysed. Several lines of evidences suggest that the novel methodologies such as transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics could help in the search for clues to the negative impact of cell phone radiation on human health. High-throughput screening techniques combined with modern bioinformatics could be used to pick up minute variations, like those caused by RF-EMW affecting protein or gene expression, that might be of insufficient magnitude to alter cell physiology or give any phenotypic alteration (Fig ure 2).Heat shock proteins (Hsp), which are molecular chaperones, comprise a group of highly conserved, abundantly expressed proteins with diverse functions, including the assembly and sequestering of multiprotein complexes, transportation of nascent polypeptide chains across cellular membranes, and regulation of protein folding. Protein phosphorylation is a first line of cellular response to any stimuli by either RBMOnline ® 152 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. Figure 2. A proposed model to study the effect of cell phone radiation using the high-throughput technologies.These techniques combined with modern bioinformatics could be helpful to find minute variations caused by RF-EMF in protein or gene expression changes that might be of insufficient magnitude to alter cell physiology or give any phenotypic alteration. MALDI-TOF = matrixassisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight; SAGE = serial analysis of gene expression. int ernal or external factors. By using western blots or mass spectrometry, the phosphoproteins could be located after cellular irradiation from a mobile phone to check for any alterations in cell response.By using this approach, Hsp27 was determined to be a molecular target event of RF-EMW (Leszczynski et al. , 2002). A study using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry found statistically significant altered expression levels of 38 various proteins in human endothelial cell lines following GSM 900 MHz irradiation (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). Two of the affected proteins were determined to be isoforms of cytoskeletal vimentin and might have an effect on the physiological functions that are regulated by the cytoskeleton.Results from a study using human lens epithelial cells (HLEC) cell lines indicate that exposure to non-thermal dosages of RF for wireless communications can induce no or repairable DNA damage and the augmented Hsp70 protein expression in HLEC oc curred without change in the cell proliferation rate (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2004). The induction of Hsp70 by extremely low frequency (ELF) EMW also involves elements of the mitogen-activated phosphokinase (MAPK) family of cell response cascades, which are recognized signal transduction systems present in eukaryotes.MAPK pathways consist of distinct cascades of regulator enzymes that serially activate one another to control the expression of specific sets of genes in response to growth factors, cytokines, tumour promoters and other major biological stimuli. The authors suggest that nonthermal stress response of Hsp70 protein increased on RF exposure might be involved in protecting HLEC from DNA damage and maintaining the cellular capacity for proliferation (Lixia et al. , 2006). RBMOnline ®The phosphorylated Hsp27 (activated) has been shown to inhibit apoptosis by forming a complex with the apoptosome (complex of Apaf 1 protein, procaspase 9, and cytochrome c) or some of its comp onents and preventing proteolytic activation of the procaspase 9 into active form of caspase 9 (Concannon et al. , 2001). This, in turn, prevents activation of procaspase-3, which is activated by caspase 9. Apaf-1 plays an important role in the induction of apoptosis (Zou et al. , 1997). Cytochrome c release from mitochondria occurs when there is a DNAdamaging stimuli-induced apoptosis.Together with dATP/ATP, cytochrome c initiates formation of an apoptosome consisting of Apaf 1 oligomers. The Apaf 1 apoptosome recruits and activates caspase 9, which in turn activates the executioner caspases, caspase 3 and caspase 7 (Zou et al. , 1997). The induction of the increased Hsp27 activation by the RF-EMW exposure might lead to inhibition of the apoptotic pathway that involves apoptosome and caspase 3. It is proposed that such events occurring in RF-EMW-exposed cells that had undergone either spontaneous or external factor-induced transformation or damage could support survival of the tran sformed/damaged cells (Leszczynski et al. 2004). The exposure of the EA. hy926 human endothelial cell line to 900 MHz RF-EMW induces activation of the p38 MAPK stress response pathway and leads to an increase in expression and phosphorylation of the small stress response protein Hsp27 (Leszczynski et al. , 2002). Other studies have shown that the phosphorylated form of Hsp 27 has the ability to translocate to the nucleus and to induce changes in gene expression (Geum et al. , 2002). The evidence suggests that different types of cells from different species might respond differently to mobile phone radiation 53 Review – Cell phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. or might have different sensitivity to this weak stimulus. The results from the studies by (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2006) show that gene and protein expression were altered in multiple cell lines in response to 1-h mobile phone radiation exposure at an average specific absorption rate of 2. 8 W/ kg. However, the same genes and proteins were affected differently by the exposure in each of the cell lines. This suggests that the cell response to mobile phone radiation might be genome- and proteome-dependent.The magnitude of the genetic background for some stimulus-specific responses was highlighted by some studies comparing different cell lines (Czyz et al. , 2004). It is postulated that the genetic constitution, as well as carrier frequency of the modulation schemes and exposure duration, may play a substantial role in responsiveness of cells to RFEMW. These findings might also explain, at least in part, the origin of discrepancies in reproducibility of studies among different laboratories (Nylund and Leszczynski, 2006).Some evidence has suggested that RF-EMW may change expression of DNA transcription factors and cause changes in cell cycle kinetics. Litovitz et al. (1993) have shown that exposure of mouse L929 fibroblasts to 915 MHz at an SAR of 2. 5 W/kg induced the express ion of ornithine decarboxylase protein, an enzyme important in cell cycle regulation. Natarajan et al. (2002) reported that exposure of a monocytic cell line to 8. 2 GHz pulse-modulated RF-EMW increased the binding of the nuclear factor kappa light chain gene to its consensus DNA sequence.Later on, relative expression and localization of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) and their receptors (BMPR), major endocrine and autocrine morphogens involved in renal development, were investigated by Pyrpasopoulou et al. (2004) in newborn kidneys from RF-EMW-exposed pregnant rats. The kidneys of newborns from the RF-exposed rats showed up-regulation of BMP4 and BMPR1A and down-regulation of BMPR2. This study suggests that RF-EMW might interfere with gene expression during early gestation and result in aberrations of BMP expression in the newborn (Pyrpasopoulou et al. 2004). RF-EMW has also been reported to affect the expression of Jun, a proto-oncogene (Ivaschuk et al. , 1997). Using serial an alysis of gene expression (SAGE), Lee et al. (2005) reported that in-vitro exposure of HL-60 cells to pulsemodulated 2. 45 GHz RF fields at an SAR of 10 W/kg for 6 h resulted in the differential expression of more than 750 genes. In contrast, many other recent studies have failed to find evidence of RF-field-induced changes in Hsp expression after RF-EMW exposure at frequencies ranging from 900–1950 MHz and SAR from 2–10 W/kg (Capri et al. 2004a,b; Laszlo et al. , 2005). Qutob et al. (2006) also reported no evidence relating nonthermal RF field on gene expression using microarray analysis in cultured U87 MG cells. Studies done on Drosophila melanogaster developmental potential by exposure to non-thermal radiation from the GSM mobile phone found increased numbers of offspring and elevated Hsp70 levels (Weisbrot et al. , 2003). This study also reported increased serum response element DNA-binding and induction of the phosphorylation of the nuclear transcription factor EL K-1 by cell phone radiation.The rapid induction of Hsp70 within minutes by a non-thermal stress, together with identified components of signal transduction pathways, could provide sensitive and reliable biomarkers that could serve as the basis for practical mobile phone safety guidelines (Weisbrot et al. , 2003). The indications to date that certain genes are influenced by EMW suggests that genome-wide scans of the transcriptome are necessary. Among the several technologies used for genomewide gene expression analysis, SAGE is one promising method that seems particularly applicable for EMW research.SAGE has been used in many biological and medical studies involving various eukaryotic species. So far, more than 19 million copies of SAGE tags have been collected from humans (Wang, 2006). In a recent study by Remondini et al. (2006), which was part of the Fifth Framework Programme project REFLEX (Risk Evaluation of Potential Environmental Hazards From LowEnergy Electromagnetic Field Ex posure Using Sensitive InVitro Methods), six human cell types, immortalized cell lines and primary cells were exposed to 900 and 1800 MHz.RNA was isolated from exposed and sham-exposed cells and labelled for transcriptome analysis on whole-genome cDNA arrays. NB69 neuroblastoma cells, T lymphocytes, and CHME5 microglial cells did not show significant changes in gene expression. In EA. hy926 endothelial cells, U937 lymphoblastoma cells and HL-60 leukaemia cells, between 12 and 34 genes were up- or down-regulated (including bcl-2-associated transcription factor BTF gene). The findings conclude that analysis of the affected gene families does not point towards a stress response, and no consistent RF-EMF signatures could be detected.However, following RF-EMW exposure, some but not all human cells might react with an increase in expression of genes encoding ribosomal proteins and therefore up-regulating the cellular metabolism (Remondini et al. , 2006). Theoretical approaches also have b een proposed to elucidate the mechanism behind the stimulation of biosynthesis by EMW (Blank and Goodman, 2008). Electrons have been shown to move in DNA and biochemical reactions could be modulated by EMW (Blank, 2005). Interaction with electrons could explain the activation of DNA by weak, low-frequency EMW, as well as the more energetic high frequencies.Evidence from biochemical reactions suggests that electromagnetic fields can accelerate electron transfer. Interaction with electrons could displace electrons in H bonds that hold DNA together, leading to chain separation and initiating transcription. The electron transfer would favour separation of base pairs, and DNA geometry is optimized for disaggregation under such conditions. The initial interaction could involve the displacement of electrons in the H bonds that hold DNA together, thereby causing chain separation and initiating transcription and translation.EMWinitiated DNA separation can set in motion the interconnected bio chemical signalling pathways that are activated in the stress response (Blank and Goodman, 2008). The effects of lowfrequency EMW on Na/K-ATPase activity (Blank, 2005) to generate ATP is another pertinent field to explore in the context of spermatozoal motility. The Na/K-ATPase is an enzyme of the plasma membrane of most animal cells that uses the free energy from the hydrolysis of ATP to mediate the exchange of cytoplasmic Na+ for extracellular K+ in a 3:2 ratio (Kaplan, 2002; Sanchez et al. , 2006).The Na/K-ATPase plays a key role in numerous cell processes that depend directly or indirectly on the transmembrane gradients of Na+ and K+. The enzyme is essential in maintaining cell osmotic balance, volume, pH and the cell resting membrane potential and in providing the chemical energy for the secondary Na+-coupled transport of other ions, solutes and water across the cell membrane (Skou and Esmann, 1992). This enzyme has an important role, along RBMOnline ® 154 Review – Cel l phones: modern man’s nemesis? – K Makker et al. with Na+/H+ exchanger, in human sperm motility (Woo et al. 2002; Sanchez et al. , 2006) These cellular pathways should be further analysed in the context of EMW. More recently Friedman et al. (2007) found significant increase in plasma membrane NADH oxidase activity of mammalian cells (HeLa cells) after exposure to 875 MHz EMF. Although the use of the discovery science approach employing high-throughput screening techniques will not yield foolproof evidence of a health hazard or its absence, it will be essential in unravelling the complexities of the biological effects potentially exerted by RF-EMF exposure. upport of previous studies, they also will open opportunities for groundbreaking research in this area. References Agarwal A, Deepinder F, Sharma RK et al. 2008 Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: an observational study. Fertility and Sterility 89, 124–128. Agarwa l A, Desai NR, Makker K et al. 2008 Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertility and Sterility Epub ahead of print. Aitken RJ 1999 The Amoroso Lecture. The human spermatozoon – a cell in crisis?Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 115, 1–7. Aitken RJ, L. E. Bennetts, Sawyer D et al. 2005 Impact of radio frequency electromagnetic radiation on DNA integrity in the male germline. International Journal of Andrology 28, 171–179. Anderson V, Rowley J 2007 Measurements of skin surface temperature during mobile phone use. Bioelectromagnetics 28, 159–162. Barnes FS, Greenebaum B 2007 Bioengineering and biophysical aspects of electromagnetic fields. In: Barnes FS, Greenebaum B (eds) Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields 3rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA.Blackwell RP 1979 Standards for microwave radiation. Nature 282, 360. Blank M 2005 Do electromagne tic fields interact with electrons in the Na,K-ATPase? Bioelectromagnetics 26, 677–683. Blank M, Goodman R 2008 A mechanism for stimulation of biosynthesis by electromagnetic fields: charge transfer in DNA and base pair separation. Journal of Cellular Physiology 214, 20–26. Braune S, Riedel A, Schulte-Monting J et al. 2002 Influence of a radiofrequency electromagnetic field on cardiovascular and hormonal parameters of the autonomic nervous system in healthy individuals.Radiation Research 158, 352–356. Braune S, Wrocklage C, Raczek J et al. 1998 Resting blood pressure increase during exposure to a radio-frequency electromagnetic field. Lancet 351, 1857–1858. Burch JB, Reif S, Noonan CW et al. 2002 Melatonin metabolite excretion among cellular telephone users. International Journal of Radiation Biology 78, 1029–1036. Cairnie AB, Harding RK 1981 Cytological studies in mouse testis irradiated with 2. 45-GHz continuous-wave microwaves. Radiation Researc h 87, 100–108. Capri M, Scarcella E, Bianchi E et al. 004a 1800 MHz radiofrequency (mobile phones, different global system for mobile communication modulations) does not affect apoptosis and heat shock protein 70 level in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from young and old donors. International Journal Radiation Biology 80, 389–397. Capri M, Scarcella E, Fumelli C et al. 2004b In-vitro exposure of human lymphocytes to 900 MHz CW and GSM modulated radiofrequency: studies of proliferation, apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential. Radiation Research 162, 211–218. Colonna A 2005 Cellular phones and cancer: current status. Bull Cancer 92, 637–643.Concannon CG, Orrenius S, Samali A 2001 Hsp27 inhibits cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation by sequestering both pro-caspase-3 and cytochrome c. Gene Expression 9, 195–201. Czyz J, Guan K, Zeng Q et al. 2004 High frequency electromagnetic fields (GSM signals) affect gene expression levels in tumor suppressor p53-deficient embryonic stem cells. Bioelectromagnetics 25, 296–307. Dasdag S, Zulkuf Akdag M, Aksen F et al. 2003 Whole body exposure of rats to microwaves emitted from a cell phone does not affect the testes. Bioelectromagnetics 24, 182–188. Dasdag S, Ketani MA, Akdag Z et al. 999 Whole-body microwave exposure emitted by cellular phones and testicular function of rats. Urological Research 27, 219–223. Cleveland Clinic pilot study To validate the results of recent epidemiological studies and to establish a cause and effect relationship between cell phone usage and decrease in semen parameters, a novel in-vitro experiment was designed. Semen samples were exposed to EMW from a commercially available cellular phone (GSM network, 850 MHz,), and the effect of EMW on semen parameters, DNA integrity [using TdT (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase)mediated dUDP nick-end labelling assay] (Tesarik et al. 2006; Ozmen et al. , 2007) and disturbance in reactive oxygen species metabolism was assessed post exposure. In this study, healthy donors were enrolled to provide semen samples. The semen sample obtained from each volunteer was divided into two parts: EMW-exposed group and control group. Environmental condition was monitored throughout the experiment. The frequency emitted by the cell phone was also confirmed with help of a radiofrequency spectrum analyser. One portion of the sample was exposed to radiation from a commercially available cell phone.A second portion was kept non-exposed for the same time duration. Measurement of sperm concentration, motility and viability was carried out as described by the World Health Organization (1999). Samples also were assessed for reactive oxygen species, total antioxidant capacity and DNA damage (Agarwal et al. , 2008). Conclusion As highlighted above, many aspects of human health have been proposed to be affected by cell phone exposure. Ranging from mild local warmth to possible tumour inductio n, EMW have been suspected of involvement in many health concerns.At this time, evidence is lacking to strongly prove or disprove any of the proposed harmful effects of EMW. However, the significance of these studies and their possible implications in the future cannot be ignored. Findings and trends available from these studies provide a strong indication to carry out further studies to establish a clearer and more evidence-based conclusion. Both human and animal-based studies have provided a hint that EMW may be involved in the pathogenesis of male infertility, but considerable work is required to provide scientific support for this view.More importantly, studies must be carried out in human semen samples as data from animal studies are limited in their applicability in humans. High-throughput screening techniques may be an important tool to evaluate the molecular effects of EMW on the biological system. 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Friedman J, Kraus S, Hauptman Y et al. 2007 Mechanism of shortterm ERK activation by electromagnetic fields at mobile phone frequencies. Biochemistry Journal 405, 559–568. Geum D, Son GH, Kim K 2002 Phosphorylation-dependent cellular localization and thermoprotective role of eat shock protein 25 in hippocampal progenitor cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 277, 19913–19921. Hardell L, Carlberg M, Ohlson CG et al. 2007 Use of cellular and cordless telephones and risk of testicular cancer. International Journal of Andrology 30, 115–122. Hardell L, Mild KH, Carlberg M, Soderqvist F 2006 Tumour risk associated with use of cellular telephones or cordless desktop telephones. World Journal of Surgical Oncology 4, 74. Hook GJ, Spitz DR, Sim JE et al. 2004 Evaluation of parameters of oxidative stress after in-vitro exposure to FMCW- and CDMAmodulated radiofrequency radiation fields.Radiation Research 162, 497–504. 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Compare Plath and Larkin Essay

Compare and contrast the ways in which death is portrayed in Philip Larkin’s poem ‘Days’ and ‘Ambulances’ and Sylvia plath’s ‘Lady Lazarus’ and ‘Death and Co’ The poems i am going to analyse are: †¢Lady Lazarus †¢Death and Co †¢Ambulances †¢Days It is understatement to say that both Sylvia Plath and Philip Larkin have immense depth and subsidiary meanings to their poems, both writers expertly structure their poems and used varied techniques to convey their themes of death and instil their messages to their readers. Plath goes about it an autobiographical manner and parades death as a theatrical show leaving the audience in shock and awe however Larkin presents death in a rather trivial manner in comparison to Plath. He juxtaposes the everyday street scene with horrific. He uses the ambulance as a momentary that death is every present and our lives ultimately lead to the journey of death. The oxymoron Lady Lazarus is significant to the poem. Lazarus, originally a man who is raised from the dead by Jesus is feminised and turned into Lady Lazarus. Plath summarises what she feels; â€Å"the terrible gift of being reborn†. The alliterative form of address â€Å"Lady Lazarus† liberates herself from the irrevocable influence of the male figure portrays her idea of feminine superiority over men and how women should excel over men in whatever they do however Larkin’s title â€Å"Ambulances† is a noun that is commonly associated with the negative imagery relating to accidents,hospitals ,blood, injuries and most importantly death. Both writers use lexical techniques to convey their outlook and opinion on the theme of death; some of which consists of rhyme, rhetorical devices and their choice of vocab. Rhyme is used in the first stanza as Plath declares â€Å"I have done it again/One year in every ten† she emphasises to the equal repartition of her near-death experiences and holds connotations of her suicide attempts, â€Å"one year in every ten† and one being premeditated at this stage. Plath speaks in hyperboles to emphasize her suicidal intention and her need to control her death and become a â€Å"walking miracle†. The pre modifier â€Å"walking† illustrates the fact that despite her many near death experiences she is still alive and ready as ever to attempt another suicide experience. The uoyant noun â€Å"miracle† that Plath describes herself as, demonstrates to the reader just how romantically Plath thinks of death to be and how her ending her own life is a seemingly phenomenal way of dying. In comparison to this, Larkin contrasts his lexical techniques in oppose to Plath, he begins with the first stanza being a dramatic, alliterative opener. The vehicles are â€Å"Closed like confessionals† and are â€Å"giving back none of the glances they absorb†; like a corpse. The alliterative statement â€Å"closed like confessionals â€Å"illustrates the Roman Catholic idea of confessing sins to a priest in a â€Å"closed† box. This also outlines the poems religious nature and demonstrates to us the religious idea of death which connotes it of being like a â€Å"closed† off box – a coffin. This also depicts the closed off nature of death and how once a person dies everything, they are sealed off from the world, an end to everything. Larkin uses enjambment to emphasize the disconnection between people and death throughout the poem. In the first two lines, the lack of punctuation ironically causes the reader to stop at the end of each line. This symbolises the separation between the ambulance, and the city it is travelling through, as well as the â€Å"glances† the ambulance takes in. In the fourth stanza, Larkin uses enjambment in five out of the six lines, demonstrating the isolation of death throughout society. Specifically in the last three lines and into the last stanza, Larkin reveals that what unites one another across the years, at last falls apart there (in the ambulance and at the hospital), while connecting all four of those lines. Vocabulary is also an element used by Plath to depict death; her language register is bold and informal. The vocabulary and rhythms make out the conversational speeches within the poem and make them out to be colloquial and everyday spoken, the frequently end-stopped lines, the repetitions which have the effect of mockingly counteracting the violence of the meaning, all establish the deliberately dismissive note of death which Plath strives to achieve.. At times the tone is hysterically strident and demanding: â€Å"unwrap me hand and foot— The big strip tease. Gentlemen, ladies These are my hands My knees. Iambic pentameter is also used in Lady Lazarus because it mimics the rhythm of conversational speech and makes it closer to spontaneous speech. This also highlights Lady Lazarus aural quality as it is meant to be read aloud which emphasizes it rhetorical intensity and perhaps the power that Lady Lazarus has gained throughout the poem â€Å" I am your opus I am your valuable The pure gold baby† The spontaneous structure of the poem emphasises the emotional and physcological disintegration of Lady Lazarus and how she speaks spontaneously out of pain that she is feeling form her suicidal attempts On the contrary, Larkin also used five groups of six lines of poetry (sestet) of iambic trimeter and roughly–there are some irregularities, a, with the first and last lines of each sestet rhyming, and the middle rhyming â€Å"a–b-a-b† like a ballad. The second stanza, only the first and last lines have been ended with punctuation leaving everything in the middle flowing. The â€Å"women in the shops† are detached from the â€Å"Wild white face† inside the ambulance. The third stanza all ends with punctuation, excluding the first line. This one exception is very isolated within the stanza as it is the only line left to flow. The flow emphasizes that the â€Å"solving emptiness† is not an obvious encounter which we face every day. The â€Å"solving emptiness†, a description of death, â€Å"lies just under all we do,† not exposed. Moreover, Plath employs and uses unique language features to express her emotion; â€Å"soon, soon the flesh/the grave cave†¦ † repetition is used to emphasise her point across to the audience, she also repeats â€Å"soon† twice to comfort the audience as well as herself; this also correlates to Plath’s idea of death and how it is a welcoming experience not to be terrified by, something that makes her feel â€Å"at home†. To the readers and audience itself it is something disorientating and a lonely discomforting concept, but to Plath and her persona Lazarus, it is something they embrace with open arms and are anticipating it â€Å"soon†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ However, Larkin goes about his language features differently; so much so that Larkin hardly uses devices such as repetition, exclamation , but rather settles for an indirect approach to his language, the only apparent use of language feature is the distinctive italic fronted text â€Å"poor soul† ,this highlights and emphasises the point Larkin wishes to make and also is his idea od the reaction given to the audience and the reader. This again relates to Larkin’s idea of death and his opinion being in total contrast to Plath. For Larkin, death is a dreadful thing, a cold, merciless, selfish thing and when death strikes it only can be described for the prey of death as â€Å"poor† which Larkin does, to have pity on those death has taken. †Soul† has In Lady Lazarus the audience are the spectators watching the performer show off her daring acts in order to prepare her to die. She in other words entertains the audience by producing her own death in a rather erotic manner. The audience is shown the grim reality of death through the pre-modifier ‘peanut-crunching’. This illustrates to the reader just how engrossed the audience is in watching Lady Lazarus attempt her suicide and are absorbed in the strangeness of her death and robotically carry on ‘crunching’ on their peanuts oblivious to just how dismal the death of Lady Lazarus is . Showmanship is portrayed through the use of first person â€Å"I† throughout the whole poem and the audience seems to develop a â€Å"charge† from the gothic striptease Lady Lazarus puts on for them or perhaps a charge the audience have to pay for watching. Using the metaphor â€Å"charge† gives connotations of the audience wanting a show, watching â€Å"Lady Lazarus† unwrap herself ,restored to life â€Å"The big strip tease† indicating sexual connotations of the audience being largely male and receiving some sort of sexual fulfilment from this. Plath also portrays her rather freakish desire for death by questioning the audience directly â€Å"O my enemy/ do I terrify? † The vocative â€Å"O† along with the possessive pronoun â€Å"my† directly challenges the audience as if the audience are somewhat responsible for the suicidal state that Plath is now in, intimidating them as she challenges them. The â€Å"O my† could also be taken as a form of loving address to her lover. If put next to ‘enemy’ it reflects her feelings about death as if it I something to long and lust for however death is all something that is utterly terrifying at the same time as it is a mystery to all of us. It also adds a sense of awkwardness throughout the poem as the reader begins to wonder about death and what appears in the afterlife. The audience also feels partly responsible for Plath’s terrible state and are also blamed for causing her death in such a manner. The rhetorical question â€Å"do I terrify† not only involves the audience directly, but also threatens the audience rather mockingly as if the answer to the question should be nothing but a yes. The verb â€Å"terrify† portrays Plath’s dual state, just like the Nazis she will not hesitate to inflict pain upon herself in order for her to die yet just like the Jewish race she fades beneath a strong force as she begins to doubt whether she is capable of ending her life. This again increasingly adds to awkward uncomfortable nature as audience beings to wonder what kind of miserable state she will be left in when she dies. However the audience in â€Å"Ambulances† are the people (mainly middle class) that are around where the death has taken place. They are the â€Å"children strewn on steps† and â€Å"women coming from the shops†. Here the normality of life trivialises the horror of death as ordinary people carry on living their life. They are watching horrifically as the body comes in. The audience here is rather sympathetic and empathise with the person that has just died. â€Å"Poor soul/they whisper at their own distress†. Using the verb â€Å" â€Å"whisper† Larkin wishes to portray how the audience not only whispers out of remorse, pity and respect for the person that has just died but also whisper because they feel a sense of relief and thankfulness that the person that has just expired was not themselves or their loved one. Here Larkin shows us the selfish nature of man and how man despite everything shall always care about them; in essence leaving everybody walking on their own. Through this Larkin shows us how death is, death shall leave every person unaccompanied and everyone shall be no one. Death is selfish and when the appointed time, death shall not wait and indeed â€Å"All streets in time are visited†. The visitor being death personified through the use of a vehicle, the Ambulance. The ambulance here is death. And Larkin portrays the randomness of death and how unexpected it can be by the use of the preposition â€Å"in† and the noun â€Å"time†. Here Larkin reminds the reader than death is inevitable and is always there, a god like figure. Larkin also presents the idea that the audience, the â€Å"onlookers† forgot about death yet are reminded when a death appears around their life and the â€Å"fastened doors recede†. The audience are perhaps morbidly fascinated by death as it appears strange to them but then the audience then begins to realise the â€Å"emptiness/That lies under all we do† and for a moment the audience understands that life has only one certainty; death. The title of the poem Death & Co title is an etymological, lexical technique in itself and is employed by the writer to change the perception of the reader, for the reader to be open minded and to grasp the writers idea. The â€Å"co† referred to in the title refers to a business which begins to establish the ironic and mocking mood of the poem,. Death is often viewed with incongruity, something that coldly takes away life yet offers comfort to those who are in pain or believe in an afterlife. This again links to the idea of death being a business because the persona asserts that â€Å"there are two† referring to the two individuals that make up the entity called â€Å"Death and co†. To the persona it is â€Å"perfectly natural† that there are two people because a business must be compromised of at least two people. In Death & Co the persona asserts that, â€Å"there are two,† personifying death the two individuals who make up the entity called Death & Co. She comments that it is natural that there would be two, as most companies are made up of at least two people. The individual â€Å"exhibits // birthmarks,† and the speaker proclaims that they are â€Å"his trademark. † This claim subsumes the title of the poem, metaphorically revealing the business which is â€Å"Death & Co. By doing this the ide of death is bought closer to the persona as it now becomes a threat that is visible and is standing before the narrator. † Sibilance is used to describe the trademark â€Å"the scald scar of water†. The effect of the assonance is that it creates harsh violent sound and emphasises the cruel and punitive nature of the partners in Death & Co. Larkin however does not use his metaphoric objectified technique in the title but rather from within the poem itself. In the second stanza Larkin uses the â€Å"priest† and the â€Å"doctor† as symbols of different sentiments and values of â€Å"death†. The priest being a man of religion and the doctor symbolic to a man of science who both serves in â€Å"solving that question†; two people obsessed with the mystery of death appears after the question has been solved. The â€Å"priest† coat is black which represents death and he helps the person from moving from this life to the next. The â€Å"Doctor† coat is white which represents life as the doctor tries to revive the person. This again has connotations of conflict between science and religion Plath begins by using repetition of numbers â€Å"two of course there are two†. She is reasserting that death has come in two living forms before her. One of them looking grotesque, â€Å"whose eyes are lidded† and the other is attractive having â€Å"long and plausive† hair yet dangerous . She does this to juxtapose the idea of life and death, the fact that two mortal creatures are bring about her lifeless state. The two figures create a sense of fear within her as she finds it difficult to name the two. â€Å"he tells me how badly/He tells me how sweet†. The repetition of Second person pronouns and the juxtaposition of her divergent feelings towards death emphasises how at times death appears inviting and perhaps more easier alternative to life difficulties yet the sheer fact of suicide perhaps restrains her form ending her life as the fear of the unknown in the afterlife haunts her . Which perhaps emphasizes her fearful yet unrecognisable feelings towards death. She fears death and the reader can see that Plaths posseses a frightened predatory victimised outlook on death so she cannot find a specific name to address them as or perhaps there is no personal attachment to death as death is metaphorically recognised as a business, it performs it function and then leaves. On the other hand Larkin uses the same rhetorical feature of repetition but in a rather different manner. Days are repeated three times in the first stanza and this repetition forces the reader to think about the meaning of the word â€Å"days† which is the futility of existence ,the inevitable truth that all life must end in death. The reader is compelled to think about what would happen after the days has ended. Larkin gives day a spatial dimension as he describes days as â€Å"Days are where we live†. This raises about how time is measured the nature of it and its artificiality. Days are not a place,not a â€Å"where† but a when and it is in this paradox that leads to the blank response to the second question. †Where can we live but days†. From this question the answerer is now question themselves as they come to realise the inevitable truth behind days ,there is a lack of choice to the answer and the answerer realises that on the other side of dyas is the night which holds high connotations of death and the afterlife something which clearly fright and perhaps intrigues the answerer Once a person no longer has any days left to live in,the only other place that a person can occupy will be a place in his grave The use of a voice or persona is clearly present in both poem’s although again both poets use this craft differently to suit their own methods of portraying death. Larkin does not clearly portray the identity of the voice or the voices the reader perceives in â€Å"Days† however what we do know is that there is a clear distinction bewtween the voice that asks the questions and the voice that answers the questions. The questions that questioner asks are literally simple,naive and appear to be that of a child asking questions rather simple questions. Of course the underlying meaning which lies behing these unpretentious questins is the metaphor of death in the background. The second voice appears to be different and fluctuates throughout the development of the poem. This voice appears to be the answerer to the questions that are asked and answers the question in a rather straightforward manner . The answer to the first question: â€Å"Days are where we live† denotes a matter of fact, mollifying tone as the simple question is answered by an equally simple although equally worrying answer. At first the voice appears to be kindly positive reassuring the childish questioner that days â€Å"are to be happy in† which again holds connotations of death. It tells the questioner and the reader also that the inevitability of death is true so we should live our lives while we have it and enjoy and â€Å"be happy† within it. In the second stanza the answerer adopts a worldly macabre tone almost mocking and cruel as it dryly observes that the only place people can inhibit apaprt from days is death. the questioner is trying to find a simple answer and uses the filler â€Å"ah† to contemplate on what happens after days,the question become a lot of bigger then it initially seemed and the answerer realises there is no simplistic way to answer it and so the â€Å"preist† and â€Å"doctor† are suppousedly the only people that hold the answers to the question However Plath uses two male persona in her poem to portray death and reveal the double or schizophrenic nature of death. The use of male persona’s was chosen deliberately to emphasise the painful awareness of man’s seemingly innate Judas quality just as death can be cruel and snipe away happiness at the last moment.

Foreign bank penetration to Nordic countries

Lars Engwall, Rolf Marquardt, Torben Pedersen, Adrian E. Tschoegl Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money 11(2001) Word count 1064 Foreign bank penetration of newly opened markets in the Nordic countries Abstract Current essay is based on the research article of Lars Engwall, Rolf Marquardt, Torben Pedersen and Adrian E. Tschoegl. The authors' research examines the role of foreign banks in Nordic countries, focusing particularly on four countries – Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden.The authors reviewed regulations on foreign bank entry that may have limited the presence of foreign banks in 1970s and how the removal of barriers influenced the method of entry, as well as on survival factors. The policy of liberalization played an important role in providing new services and stimulating competition and efficiency in the domestic market of four countries. 1. Introduction The aim of the article is to determine the evolution of foreign banks in the banki ng system as a whole.On the basis of the research three hypotheses related to determinants of the foreign bank sector's share were formulated. Tschoegl (2002) identified that the Norwegian case has a number of useful characteristics in banking system. Primarily, it is a clear and recent starting point for the entry of foreign banks. Second, there is an interesting mix of entrants and abstainers, and entry strategies. Third, enough time has elapsed that one can start to observe failures and survivors.The reviewed literature is essential in Justifying the research on the topic and provides useful definitions on liability of foreignness and major sources of problems in Foreign Direct Investment ( ) However, a briet review ot liberalization history ot he Norwegian banking system and especially policies towards foreign banks, which in turn affected on entry and survival picture, could be useful. Tschoegl (2002) noted that Norway had a long history of closure to foreign banks. In the foll owing section, I consider 3 hypotheses introduced by Engwall et al. (2001).Section 3 will focus on methodological issues applied in the testing of the model. The paper ends with a few concluding comments. 2. The hypotheses H 1: the longer foreign banks have been present, the larger their market share. There is an assumption that the time trend affected on the market share of foreign ntrants. Engwall et al (2001) claimed that new foreign ventures faced liability of foreignness that had three aspects. Based on the studies of Choi et al. , (1986, 1996) the cost of operation at a distance was asserted to have less effect on expenses in banking at a distant.The issues such as operating in unfamiliar environment and establishment of relationships with clients are cases of FDI (Tschoegl, 1987) that require a long time period to build proper performance and increase the market share of foreign banks. Grosse and Goldberg (1991) suggest that FDI has become ore regional, and to benefit from re gional specialization banks should acquire specific knowledge and experience. Thus, middle-range theories state when already active in a specific region, foreign banks are likely to expand in that same region.Factors like past colonial links, language or other similarities that do not overlap with regional groupings may then become less important. H2: the market share of foreign banks should expand with a trade deficit and contract with a trade surplus According to Tschoegl (2002) the foreign banks essentially provide a fringe service ied to import trade and related activities. Likewise, Goldberg et al. , (1989) found that international trade is intensive in its use of financial services and those financial services tend to be exported along with goods.

Environmental Issues Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Environmental Issues - Term Paper Example Mahli et al. (2008) support production of carbon dioxide by natural activities and the existence of a natural process for balancing the emission and removal of the gas into and from the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide produced by humans is minimal enough to be absorbed by the oceans. On the other hand, Turk and Bensel (2011) attribute the change in carbon dioxide composition to burning of fossil fuels by humans. It is believed that no one is sure why the climate keeps changing. The available information on climatic systems is minimal to attribute global warming to specific initiators. Therefore, since ancient climate was a natural event, even the modern changes could be attributed to natural factors. Opponents of this motion argue that the current warming greatly supersedes what was experienced in the ancient period. Hence, there could be some external influence – human activities. A new ice age had been predicted decades ago based on the previous alternation between about 100,000 years of ice age and about 10,000 to 30,000 years of warm interglacial periods. Despite the earth completing its 10,000th interglacial year, this appears elusive (Mahli et al., 2008). Global warming has been predicted to exist in many decades to come (Turk & Bensel, 2011). There has been no measure to prove that the current warming results from global warming. It could therefore be a result of a shift in the planetary reflectivity of the earth thus increased absorption; internal climatic system variation that causes the transfer of heat from one region of the earth onto the atmosphere; or the sun’s increased output (Zahran et al., 2007). However, direct observation negates these arguments. Human beings being the cause of global warming have the power to stop it. Governments have exhibited commitment to reduce emissions by between 50 and 80 percent by the year 2050 (Turk &

Learning Disabiities Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Learning Disabiities - Research Paper Example The researcher believes that if teachers, parents and the community worked with each other then and only then will people’s scores would increase. The researcher learned that there is a wealth of knowledge within her co-workers; especially, when it comes to the modifications with the students this research shared in people’s classes. People’s common goals were and still are the success of people’s students. However, schools do not see it that way. Unfortunately, what the school sees and wants is not always the same thing. This researcher will continue to monitor her student’s progress on the standardized tests, continue with the modifications within her classroom and continue working with the inclusion teachers. This was a great experience for her. This research is so caught up in people’s own world (being people’s classroom) this research cannot see what anyone else is doing. Month 1 Week 1 Who observes Observe students writing assess ment within the classroom. Assign writing assignments. Are you using assessment and assignment interchangeably? Either go to my post during week 1 or apply the directions from the Student Handbook. Be sure you are reading all posts in the Main and Course Materials forum. Several aspects of this assignment indicate you’ve not read a number of my posts. ... Week 2 Check students schedule (enrolled in an after school program). Grades from first progress report. Remediation classes for repeated failures. Week 3 GA High School Writing test will be administered this week. Week 4 Continue with the writing sessions incorporated within my classes. Month 3 Week 1 Continue with the writing sessions incorporated within my classes. Week 2 Meeting with English/Literature teacher reviewing writing samples of the students after the last sample. Week 3 Attending after school program monitoring the additional remediation classes being offered after school and how many students have attended. Week 4 GHSWT administered this week Month 4 Week 1 GHSWT administered this week Week 2 Fall Break (awaiting results) Week 3 Results are back 5 out of 12 passed the test this session. However, the remaining 7 did not pass. The scores range from 187-193. Additional remediation is required. Chapter Five: Results and Recommendations Problem Statement High school studen ts with learning disabilities who are placed in inclusive education classes do not show year to year progress on standardized tests. Goals and Expectation The goal of this study is for high school students to show passing scores on standardized tests and show year-to-year progress on the GHSGT (i.e. Georgia High School Graduation Test). During this process, teachers will closely monitor the students’ progress every three weeks. Progress reports will be given to each student, and any student who has below a 75, the parents will be notified. Another goal for this study is for students to join the after school programs in order to get the extra remediation they will need to pass the class and successfully pass the

Analysis of a NewYork landmark Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis of a NewYork landmark - Term Paper Example The paper intends to reveal certain facts of the Statue of Liberty based in New York. The Statue of Liberty is a symbol of freedom and the beginning of a new life in the land of liberty. Moreover, the depiction of the landmark regarding the history of New York and the character of its inhabitants will also be discussed in the paper. In order to explain about what The Statue of Liberty communicates towards the history of New York City, it can be affirmed that the landmark can be duly regarded as a symbol of character of the city and the residents residing there. The landmark is often viewed to be a famous tourist attraction in New York since a long time period. The Statue of Liberty shows a picture of the slavery system being crushed in the feet of the lady as portrayed in the Statue. It also depicts the improvement of the life of the people of New York. Earlier in the United States, there exists the slavery system. This Statue reveals the abolition of t slave system in the history of New York and the rise of a better life style of the residents of the city. It is often considered to be a universal symbol of freedom against the slave system prevailing in the city along with the nation (Murthy Law Firm, â€Å"Statue of Liberty†). The Statue of Liberty not only communicates about the history of the previous days but also the characteristics of the citizens residing in the city. Along with the abolition of the slave system, the statue also highlighted the start of an efficient life of the people. The torch of the lady is a symbol of the characteristics of the residents of the city. New York is a city with large population having kind nature. This character has been reflected by the statue (Fleegler 193-196). The Statue of Liberty communicates a lot of information about the city of New York. The statue itself is a universal symbol of freedom which reveals the abolition of slave system

IT Project Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

IT Project Management - Assignment Example Three cells on top, a full width cell in the middle showing Activity name and three cells on bottom. Each of these cells represents important information about the activity as shown below in the picture:- Calculation of Early Start and Early Finish time: Early start time in the first activity is set to 1 whereas duration is given in the requirements. Early finish time is calculated by adding duration in early start time. Early start time of the next sequential activity is set to the previous activity’s early finish time. Adding duration, Early Finish time is found. All activities are traversed in the forward direction and their early start, duration and early finish time is found in this way and written in their respective cells. Early start time of activity that is approached by two or more activities is set to the highest time. For example Activity 14 is approached by Activity 8 which has early finish time as 76 and Activity 12 which has early finish time as 39. The highest early finish time is 76 so early start time of Activity 14 is set to 76. Calculation of Late Start and Late Finish time: Reaching to the end of the activity or finish traversing is restarted in the backward direction. The last activity’s early finish time is set to its late finish time. Deducting duration, late start time is set. Traversing backward previous activity’s late finish time is set to the late start time of the current activity. Then deducting duration, late start time of previous activity is found. All activities are traversed in the backward direction and their late finish, float/slack and late start time is found in this way and written in their respective cells until the start is reached. Late finish time of activity that is approached by two or more activities is set to the lowest time. For example Activity 5 is approached in backward direction by Activity 6 which has late start time as 22 and Activity 7 which has late start time as 65. The lowest early finish time is 22 so late finish time of Activity 5 is set to 22. Calculation of Float or Slack time: The Float or Slack time is the difference between late finish and early finish time. It is same as the difference between early start and late start time. All the activities that have float/slack as zero is critical activity and must be part of the Critical Path. Start and Finish Activity box: Each diagram begins with the start box having values of zero for early start, duration, early finish, late start, float and late finish. Each diagram ends with the finish box having values of maximum days needed to complete for the project. It is set in all the cells of early start, duration, early finish, late start, float late finish. Directional Arrow: Each activity is linked with a directional arrow to show the sequential flow of the activities. The arrow can be in the forward direction to show the progress of work flow or up and down direction to show the parallel works. No backward dire ction is allowed in the network diagram because the time once passed never returns. Task 3: Constraints of Days and Amount Applying constraint of completing project within 70 days has forced to break up two of the activities. Activity 6 of 15 days which has been now changed to Activity 6(a) and Activity 6(b) each of 10 days duration calculated by 2/3*15 formula given in constraints. Similarly Activity 8 of 39 days is now

Discussion 1 Week 4 Competitive Bidding and Long-Term Cost Savings Assignment

Discussion 1 Week 4 Competitive Bidding and Long-Term Cost Savings - Assignment Example CMS then enters into contracts with select DME suppliers to provide DME items at the prices determined by CBP†¦ CBP also provides an incentive for DME suppliers to accept lower Medicare payment amounts in exchange for the ability to serve beneficiaries and to potentially increase their Medicare market share† (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2011, p. 2). As such, it is the best interests of Medicare patients that prices are set through CBP to ensure that they are provided with the least cost of DME. Competitive bidding was revealed to remain a crucial part of the health reform program, particularly Medicare reform (Feldman, Dowd, & Coulam, 2013). As emphasized, â€Å"competitive bidding will save a substantial amount of money, the exact amount depending on the bidding rules ultimately selected and any transition rules adopted to moderate the pace of change for beneficiaries† (Feldman, Dowd, & Coulam, 2013, p. 20). As such, due to the cost efficiency and potential savings to be generated from competitive bidding, it will remain a viable alternative when the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is fully implemented in 2014. The defining factors regarding the competitive bidding process include the price, which is considered the primary factor (Universal Service Administrative Company, 2014); as well as reliability, technical support, bandwidth, and quality of transmission (Universal Service Administrative Company, 2014). Thus, the survival or failure of the bidding organization would depend on their ability to provide the needed goods, products, or services, in the most cost-effective and reliable manner within the stipulated time frame. Feldman, R., Dowd, B., & Coulam, R. (2013, April). A Competitive Bidding Approach to Medicare Reform. Retrieved from American Enterprise Institute:

Research In Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Research In Business Management - Essay Example In this literature review, various works of literature on racism in the retail industry of the United Kingdom shall be critically reviewed. The aim of the researcher shall be to analyze the opinion of various reviewers on what racism is and how it started, laws that protect people against racism and discrimination, effects of racial discrimination on the growth of the United Kingdom retail industry and how racism in the retail industry of the United Kingdom can be stopped. Racism explained Several reviewers see and explain racism just from a perspective of ethic or racial background. To this effect, they make the discrimination against people based on their skin color as the major definition of racism. In this function, Ellis-Christensen (2011) explains racism as the discrimination against people based on their race after explaining that â€Å"commonly, but not always, people are categorized into one of five races: White, Black, Latino or Hispanic, Asian, and Indigenous or Native.â €  Racism however goes beyond the discrimination of people based on their race or ethic background. In fact, limiting racism to discrimination against people based on their race would mean that racism cannot take place among two people belonging to one of the six sects mentioned by Ellis-Christensen (2011). ... With his explanation, it can established that two people may be of the same skin colour or race but by the mere fact that one is from a different national or ethic origin can result in one of the fellows showing acts of racism against the other. Laws guiding against racial discrimination at the workplace Since racial discrimination is a human rights issue, various countries have laws that guides against it. In the United Kingdom, there are national laws that guide against racial discrimination at the workplace. These laws are very necessary because as noted by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2011), â€Å"everyone should have a right to equal access to employment and when employed should have equal pay and equal access to training and development.† In this regard, Section 1 of The Race Relations Act 1976 (Amendment) Regulations 2003 gives emphatic scenarios that constitute racial discrimination at the workplace and by extension in the retail sector. As a l aw, the breach of the binding rules comes with daring consequences to offenders (The National Archives, 2003). The researcher is however concerned with the implementation of the laws as the provisions of the law can never be enough if enforcement is not ensured thereof. In 2005 for instance the Abercrombie & Fitch lawsuits sent â€Å"award checks to the over ten thousand class members who submitted valid claim forms in accordance with the process set forth by the Court in the April 2005 settlement order†, most of which had to do with racial discrimination (Alvarez, 2005). This not withstanding, Barmes and Ashtiany (2003) report of how various retail companies have their own laws and regulations that guides against racial discrimination. Effects of racial discrimination on the UK retail industry

Food Conflict in the World Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Food Conflict in the World - Research Paper Example In addition, intensive subdivision of land has made it very hard for these people to produce enough food to support their family (Runge, 2003). The subdivision of land has created more conflicts as there are no documents that were used during land adjudication. Family wrangles have therefore slowed the production process. This is affecting the level of food security in the society. With the increasing levels of globalization resulting from liberalization of markets, efficient flow of information, and integration of economies, the conflicts of interest in the global market has increased tremendously. The multinational companies have shifted their attention towards the agricultural sector as a way of diversifying their source of revenues. This is to reduce the risks and uncertainties associated with focusing on a single product. However, majority of these firms have no interest of the people at hand. Instead, they venture in agriculture in order to make immense profits at the expense of poor farmers. They have therefore leased large tracks of land which have the potential to produce enough foods for the population. They then plant cash crops such as flowers which fetch high prices in the global market. They go ahead and hire a lot of employees who have the necessary skills and experience to produce food for the population (Labonte, 2009). This aspect is negativel y affecting the agricultural sector. Globalization has led to the liberalization of market, an aspect that has a major impact on food security in the world.

Evaluate the arguments for and against collective bargaining in the UK Essay

Evaluate the arguments for and against collective bargaining in the UK - Essay Example Informational differences provide an appealing explanation for bargaining inefficiencies. Even the development of noncooperative bargaining theory, which provided the tools and served for the collective bargaining, did not work out so well as it was expected. However a general aim of this theoretical development is followed i.e., to inform policy makers of the efficiency and equity effects associated with different labour laws and institutions that govern and shape the collective bargaining process1. While these laws and policies are still in developing phase, they can already offer many insights into the interplay between policy and the bargaining process. (Bargaining, 2005a) Collective bargaining is specifically an industrial relations mechanism or tool, which is applicable to the employment relationship in order to avoid unpredicted disputes. In collective bargaining the union always have a collective interest since the negotiations are for the benefit of several employees as well as for the organization. Where collective bargaining is not for one employer but for several, collective interests become a feature for both the parties to the bargaining process. In labor relations, negotiations involve the public interest such as where negotiations are on wages, which can impact on prices. This is implicitly recognized when a party or the parties seek the support of the public, especially where negotiations have failed and work disruptions follow. Governments intervene when necessary in collective bargaining because the negotiations are of interest to those beyond the parties themselves. In collective bargaining certain essential conditions need to be satisfied, such as the existence of the freedom of association, a labor law system etc. Further, since the beneficiaries of collective bargaining are in daily contact with each other,